.. _guide.handlers:
Request handlers
================
In the webapp2 vocabulary, `request handler` or simply `handler` is a common
term that refers to the callable that contains the application logic to handle
a request. This sounds a lot abstract, but we will explain everything in
details in this section.
Handlers 101
------------
A handler is equivalent to the `Controller` in the
`MVC <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%E2%80%93view%E2%80%93controller>`_
terminology: in a simplified manner, it is where you process the request,
manipulate data and define a response to be returned to the client: HTML,
JSON, XML, files or whatever the app requires.
Normally a handler is a class that extends :class:`webapp2.RequestHandler`
or, for compatibility purposes, ``webapp.RequestHandler``. Here is a simple
one::
class ProductHandler(webapp2.RequestHandler):
def get(self, product_id):
self.response.write('You requested product %r.' % product_id)
app = webapp2.WSGIApplication([
(r'/products/(\d+)', ProductHandler),
])
This code defines one request handler, ``ProductHandler``, and a WSGI
application that maps the URI ``r'/products/(\d+)'`` to that handler.
When the application receives an HTTP request to a path that matches this
regular expression, it instantiates the handler and calls the corresponding
HTTP method from it. The handler above can only handle ``GET`` HTTP requests,
as it only defines a ``get()`` method. To handle ``POST`` requests,
it would need to implement a ``post()`` method, and so on.
The handler method receives a ``product_id`` extracted from the URI, and
sets a simple message containing the id as response. Not very useful, but this
is just to show how it works. In a more complete example, the handler would
fetch a corresponding record from a database and set an appropriate response
-- HTML, JSON or XML with details about the requested product, for example.
For more details about how URI variables are defined, see :ref:`guide.routing`.
HTTP methods translated to class methods
----------------------------------------
The default behavior of the :class:`webapp2.RequestHandler` is to call a
method that corresponds with the HTTP action of the request, such as the
``get()`` method for a HTTP GET request. The method processes the request and
prepares a response, then returns. Finally, the application sends the response
to the client.
The following example defines a request handler that responds to HTTP GET
requests::
class AddTwoNumbers(webapp2.RequestHandler):
def get(self):
try:
first = int(self.request.get('first'))
second = int(self.request.get('second'))
self.response.write("<html><body><p>%d + %d = %d</p></body></html>" %
(first, second, first + second))
except (TypeError, ValueError):
self.response.write("<html><body><p>Invalid inputs</p></body></html>")
A request handler can define any of the following methods to handle the
corresponding HTTP actions:
- ``get()``
- ``post()``
- ``head()``
- ``options()``
- ``put()``
- ``delete()``
- ``trace()``
View functions
--------------
In some Python frameworks, handlers are called `view functions` or simply
`views`. In Django, for example, `views` are normally simple functions that
handle a request. Our examples use mostly classes, but webapp2 handlers can
also be normal functions equivalent to Django's `views`.
A webapp2 handler can, really, be **any** callable. The routing system has
hooks to adapt how handlers are called, and two default adapters are used
whether it is a function or a class. So, differently from webapp, ordinary
functions can easily be used to handle requests in webapp2, and not only
classes. The following example demonstrates it::
def display_product(request, *args, **kwargs):
return webapp2.Response('You requested product %r.' % args[0])
app = webapp2.WSGIApplication([
(r'/products/(\d+)', display_product),
])
Here, our handler is a simple function that receives the request instance,
positional route variables as ``*args`` and named variables as ``**kwargs``,
if they are defined.
Apps can have mixed handler classes and functions. Also it is possible to
implement new interfaces to define how handlers are called: this is done
setting new handler adapters in the routing system.
Functions are an alternative for those that prefer their simplicity or think
that handlers don't benefit that much from the power and flexibility provided
by classes: inheritance, attributes, grouped methods, descriptors, metaclasses,
etc. An app can have mixed handler classes and functions.
.. note::
We avoid using the term `view` because it is often confused with the `View`
definition from the classic `MVC` pattern. Django prefers to call its `MVC`
implementation `MTV` (model-template-view), so `view` may make sense in
their terminology. Still, we think that the term can cause unnecessary
confusion and prefer to use `handler` instead, like in other Python
frameworks (webapp, web.py or Tornado, for instance). In essence, though,
they are synonyms.
.. _guide.handlers.returned_values:
Returned values
---------------
A handler method doesn't need to return anything: it can simply write to the
response object using ``self.response.write()``.
But a handler **can** return values to be used in the response. Using the
default dispatcher implementation, if a handler returns anything that is not
``None`` it **must** be a :class:`webapp2.Response` instance. If it does so,
that response object is used instead of the default one.
For example, let's return a response object with a `Hello, world` message::
class HelloHandler(webapp2.RequestHandler):
def get(self):
return webapp2.Response('Hello, world!')
This is the same as::
class HelloHandler(webapp2.RequestHandler):
def get(self):
self.response.write('Hello, world!')
What if you think that returning a response object is verbose, and want to
return simple strings? Fortunately webapp2 has all the necessary hooks to make
this possible. To achieve it, we need to extend the router dispatcher to build
a ``Response`` object using the returned string. We can go even further and
also accept tuples: if a tuple is returned, we use its values as positional
arguments to instantiate the ``Response`` object. So let's define our custom
dispatcher and a handler that returns a string::
def custom_dispatcher(router, request, response):
rv = router.default_dispatcher(request, response)
if isinstance(rv, basestring):
rv = webapp2.Response(rv)
elif isinstance(rv, tuple):
rv = webapp2.Response(*rv)
return rv
class HelloHandler(webapp2.RequestHandler):
def get(self, *args, **kwargs):
return 'Hello, world!'
app = webapp2.WSGIApplication([
(r'/', HelloHandler),
])
app.router.set_dispatcher(custom_dispatcher)
And that's all. Now we have a custom dispatcher set using the router method
:meth:`webapp2.Router.set_dispatcher`. Our ``HelloHandler`` returns a string
(or it could be tuple) that is used to create a ``Response`` object.
Our custom dispatcher could implement its own URI matching and handler
dispatching mechanisms from scratch, but in this case it just extends the
default dispatcher a little bit, wrapping the returned value under certain
conditions.
.. _guide.handlers.a.micro.framework.based.on.webapp2:
A micro-framework based on webapp2
----------------------------------
Following the previous idea of a custom dispatcher, we could go a little
further and extend webapp2 to accept routes registered using a decorator,
like in those Python micro-frameworks.
Without much ado, ladies and gentlemen, we present micro-webapp2::
import webapp2
class WSGIApplication(webapp2.WSGIApplication):
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
super(WSGIApplication, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
self.router.set_dispatcher(self.__class__.custom_dispatcher)
@staticmethod
def custom_dispatcher(router, request, response):
rv = router.default_dispatcher(request, response)
if isinstance(rv, basestring):
rv = webapp2.Response(rv)
elif isinstance(rv, tuple):
rv = webapp2.Response(*rv)
return rv
def route(self, *args, **kwargs):
def wrapper(func):
self.router.add(webapp2.Route(handler=func, *args, **kwargs))
return func
return wrapper
Save the above code as ``micro_webapp2.py``. Then you can import it in
``main.py`` and define your handlers and routes like this::
import micro_webapp2
app = micro_webapp2.WSGIApplication()
@app.route('/')
def hello_handler(request, *args, **kwargs):
return 'Hello, world!'
def main():
app.run()
if __name__ == '__main__':
main()
This example just demonstrates some of the power and flexibility that lies
behind webapp2; explore the :ref:`webapp2 API <api.webapp2>` to discover other
ways to modify or extend the application behavior.
Overriding __init__()
---------------------
If you want to override the :meth:`webapp2.RequestHandler.__init__` method,
you must call :meth:`webapp2.RequestHandler.initialize` at the beginning of
the method. It'll set the current request, response and app objects as
attributes of the handler. For example::
class MyHandler(webapp2.RequestHandler):
def __init__(self, request, response):
# Set self.request, self.response and self.app.
self.initialize(request, response)
# ... add your custom initializations here ...
# ...
Overriding dispatch()
---------------------
One of the advantadges of webapp2 over webapp is that you can wrap the
dispatching process of :class:`webapp2.RequestHandler` to perform actions
before and/or after the requested method is dispatched. You can do this
overriding the :meth:`webapp2.RequestHandler.dispatch` method. This can be
useful, for example, to test if requirements were met before actually
dispatching the requested method, or to perform actions in the response object
after the method was dispatched. Here's an example::
class MyHandler(webapp2.RequestHandler):
def dispatch(self):
# ... check if requirements were met ...
# ...
if requirements_were_met:
# Parent class will call the method to be dispatched
# -- get() or post() or etc.
super(MyHandler, self).dispatch()
else:
self.abort(403)
In this case, if the requirements were not met, the method won't ever be
dispatched and a "403 Forbidden" response will be returned instead.
There are several possibilities to explore overriding ``dispatch()``, like
performing common checkings, setting common attributes or post-processing the
response.